Vocabulary and Knowledge are Gatekeepers to Reading Comprehension

Difficulties with reading comprehension can stem from different underlying causes. Vocabulary and knowledge are necessary bases of comprehension. All children bring funds of knowledge and language to their learning experience. The term "academic language" refers to the vocabulary and language patterns used in texts and concepts in school and the workplace and which are especially critical for reading comprehension (Lesaux and Russ Harris, 2015; Ricketts, Nation, & Bishop, 2007). A child struggling with reading comprehension may require more-developed academic language in order to read and comprehend grade-appropriate texts.

English Learners in grades preK–3 are learning to speak two or more languages and simultaneously learning to read and write in English. This is a complex cognitive feat, and development of academic English requires approximately 5–7 years to secure. Thus, development of academic vocabulary is particularly important for young English learners to accelerate their acquisition of spoken English and, in turn, English reading comprehension.

Similarly, a reader's prior knowledge of a topic is a chief determinant of whether he/she will understand the passage (Anderson & Pearson, 1984). Children familiar with the topic of a text will comprehend it more fully, including making more inferences (Oakhill, Cain & Elbro, 2015). Any child who lacks familiarity with the topic of a text will struggle to comprehend it fully. The approach of integrating knowledge-building into literacy instruction is receiving growing attention (e.g., Cabell & Hwang, 2020), and is especially beneficial for children who do not bring background knowledge of topics that appear in the curriculum (e.g., science, history, or the arts).

Vocabulary and Knowledge as Potential Barriers to Reading Comprehension

When vocabulary and/or knowledge of the topic is a barrier to reading comprehension, children might display difficulty with:

• using academic language in oral communication
• applying learned comprehension skill or strategies to a text
• explaining ideas from a text that they were able to read accurately
• making sense of concepts or relationships that are described directly in a text

Approaches to Intervention for Vocabulary

Instructional strategies that provide explicit instruction in definition and contextual information, and encourage children to use vocabulary expressively have been proven effective with students who have difficulty with vocabulary (Jitendra et al., 2004). Studies also conclude that during direct intervention, instruction can be individualized but small group is best for most vocabulary interventions as vocabulary learning occurs through discussion (Steele & Mills, 2011). Incidental word learning during independent reading is important for readers, but children with reading comprehension or oral language difficulties will not gain the same benefits (Steele & Watkins, 2010). Implicit vocabulary learning is helpful (Iowa Center for Reading Research, 2017), but must be supported by explicit instruction for maximum effectiveness (Marulis & Neuman, 2010).

The National Reading Technical Assistance Center conducted a meta-analysis of vocabulary instruction studies in 2010 and identified the following best practices:

• Provide direct instruction of vocabulary words for a specific text
• Include repetition and multiple exposures to vocabulary items
• Vocabulary words should be those that the learner will find useful in many contexts.
• Vocabulary learning is effective when it entails active engagement that goes beyond definitional knowledge
• Computer technology can be used effectively to help teach vocabulary
• Dependence on a single vocabulary instruction method will not result in optimal learning; vocabulary tasks should be restructured as necessary.

The Language and Reading Research Consortium (LARRC) developed an evidence-based 25-week curriculum supplement for children in grades pre-kindergarten to third grade designed to improve children's vocabulary and language skills as a means to improving their reading comprehension. These materials are public, free, and downloadable.

For Additional Information

• Components of the Core Literacy Block: Engaging with Complex Text and Language Skills
• Skills for Early Reading: Vocabulary and Morphology
• Skills for Early Reading: Knowledge
• Instruction that incorporates the use of text sets to build vocabulary and knowledge: Achieve the Core (Resource)
• Duke, N.K. (2004). The Case for Informational Text. Educational Leadership, 61(6), 40–44.
• Building Background Knowledge ** (Coppola, 2014)
• The Vocabulary Book, by Michael Graves (2006). New York: Teachers College Press.
• Planning Standards Aligned Instruction within a Multi-Tiered System of Support; Vocabulary Example , from the National Center on Intensive Intervention, (Example)
• Teaching Vocabulary **, from Reading Rockets by Linda Diamond and Linda Gutlohn (Resource)

Scientific Information about Vocabulary and Knowledge as Gatekeepers to Reading Comprehension

Biemiller, A. & Boote, C. (2006). An effective method for building meaning vocabulary in primary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology. 98, 44–62. Doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.

Cervetti, G.N., & Wright, T.S. (2020). The role of knowledge in understanding and learning from text. In E.B. Moje, P. Afflerbach, N.K. Lesaux, & P. Enciso (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol 5). New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Coppola, S. (2014). Building Background Knowledge. The Reading Teacher, 68(2), 145–148 doi: 10.1002/trtr.1314).

Duke, N. K., & Bennett-Armistead, V. S. (2003). Reading and writing informational text in the primary grades: Research-based practices. New York: Scholastic.

Duke, N. K., Bennett-Armistead, V. S., & Roberts, E. M. (2002). Incorporating informational text in the primary grades. In C. Roller (Ed.), Comprehensive reading instruction across the grade levels (pp. 40–54). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Jitendra AK, Edwards LL, Sacks G, et al. What research says about vocabulary instruction for students with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children. 2004; 70:299–322

Kim, J.S., Burkhauser, M.A., Mesite, L.M., Asher, C.A., Relyea, J.E., Elmore, J., … Relyea, J.E. (2020). Improving reading comprehension, science domain knowledge, and reading engagement through a first-grade content literacy intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/edu0000465.supp

Marulis, L. M., & Neuman, S. B. (2010). The effects of vocabulary intervention on young children's word learning: a meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 80(3), 300–335. doi:10.3102/0034654310377087

Neuman, S.B., & Kaefer, T. (2018). Developing low-income children's vocabulary and content knowledge through a shared book reading program. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 52, 15–24. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.12.001

Snow, C. E., & Kim, Y. (2007). Large problem spaces: The challenge of vocabulary for English language learners. In R. K. Wagner, A. E. Muse, & K. R. Tasnnenbaum (Eds.), Vocabulary acquisition: Implications for reading comprehension (pp. 123–139). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Vitale, M.R., & Romance, N.R. (2012). Using in-depth science instruction to accelerate student achievement in science and reading comprehension in grades 1 – 2. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 10, 457–472. doi:10.1007/s10763-011-9326-8

References

Anderson, R.C., & Pearson, P.D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading. In P.D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of Reading Research (pp.255–291). New York: Longman.

Cabell, S.Q., & Hwang, H. (2020). Building Content Knowledge to Boost Comprehension in the Primary Grades. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S99– S107.

Catts, H. W., Hogan, T. P., & Fey, M. E. (2003). Subgrouping poor readers on the basis of individual differences in reading-related abilities. Journal of learning Disabilities, 36(2), 151–164.

Catts, H. W., Adlof, S. M., & Weismer, S. E. (2006). Language deficits in poor comprehenders: A case for the simple view of reading. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research.

Catts, H. W., Hogan, T. P., & Adlof, S. M. (2005). Developmental changes in reading and reading disabilities. The connections between language and reading disabilities, 25–40.

Jitendra A.K., Edwards L.L., Sacks G., et al. What research says about vocabulary instruction for students with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children. 2004;70:299–322.

Lesaux, N. and Russ Harris, J. (2015) Cultivating Knowledge, Building Language. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Marulis, L. M., & Neuman, S. B. (2010). The effects of vocabulary intervention on young children's word learning: a meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 80(3), 300–335. doi:10.3102/0034654310377087

Oakhill, J., Cain, K., & Elbro, C. (2015). Understanding and teaching reading comprehension: A handbook. New York: Routledge.

Ricketts, J., Nation, K., & Bishop, D. V. M. (2007). Vocabulary is important for some, but not all reading skills. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11, 235–257. doi: 10.1080/10888430701344306

Steele, S. C., & Mills, M. T. (2011). Vocabulary Intervention for School-age Children with Language Impairment: A Review of Evidence and Good Practice. Child language teaching and therapy, 27(3), 354–370.

Steele, S.C., Watkins, R.V. Learning word meanings during reading by children with language learning disability and typically developing peers. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics. 2010; 24:520–539.

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Last Updated: September 30, 2021